What did medieval people know about bees? Beekeeping has ancient roots, but detailed accounts from the Middle Ages are surprisingly rare. One notable exception is the Geoponika, a 10th-century Byzantine farming manual compiled from earlier Greek and Roman sources. Among its many chapters is a section devoted to bees and beekeeping, offering both practical advice and reflections on the nature and habits of these remarkable insects.

One of the most engaging parts of the Geoponika is a lengthy passage praising the nature and intelligence of bees. It begins by describing their remarkable wisdom and organised society:

The bee is the wisest and cleverest of all animals and the closest to man in intelligence; its work is truly divine and of the greatest use to mankind. Its social life resembles that of the best regulated cities. In their excursions bees follow a leader and obey instructions. They bring back sticky secretions from flowers and trees and spread them like ointment on their floors and doorways. Some are employed in making honey and some in other tasks.

It then turns to their cleanliness, self-restraint, and defensive instincts:

The bee is extremely clean, settling on nothing that is bad-smelling or impure; it is not greedy; it will not approach flesh or blood or fat but only things of sweet flavour. It does not spoil the work of others, but fiercely defends its own work against those who try to spoil it. Aware of its own weakness, it makes the entrance to its home narrow and winding, so that those entering in large numbers to do harm are easily destroyed by the guardian bees.

Finally, the text highlights how bees respond to music, support their leader, and value hard work:

This animal is pleased by a good tune: when they are scattered, therefore, beekeepers clash cymbals or clap their hands rhythmically to bring them home.

This is the only animal that looks for a leader to take care of the whole community: it always honours its king, follows him enthusiastically wherever he goes, supports him when he is exhausted, carries him and keeps him safe when he cannot fly. It particularly hates laziness; bees unite to kill the ones who do no work and use up others’ production. Its mechanical skill and near-logical understanding is shown by the fact that it makes hexagonal cells to store honey.

Beehives

The Geoponika provides specific advice on how to construct hives that are both practical and durable:

The best hives, that is, containers for the swarms, are made from beechwood boards, or from fig, or equally from pine or Valonia oak; these should be one cubit wide and two cubits long, and rubbed on the outside with a kneaded mixture of ash and cow dung so that they are less likely to rot. They should be ventilated obliquely so that the wind, blowing gently, will dry and cool whatever is cobwebby and mouldy…

It also explains how to safely move hives from one location to another:

If there is a need to move them, at the demand of a purchaser or for some other reason, it must be done gently and during the night; the hives should be wrapped in skins; they should be set in place before dawn. When it is done in this way the combs will not be damaged and the creatures will not be injured.

Seasonal Care of Bees

The text includes seasonal guidelines to help beekeepers care for their swarms throughout the year, especially during harsh weather:

As food for young bees put out wine mixed with honey, in basins, and in these, place leaves of many-flowered savory so that they do not drown. To feed your swarms in the best possible way whenever they stay at home because of wintry weather or burning heat and run out of food, pound together raisins and savory finely and give them this with barley cakes.

Spring was the time for cleaning and inspection. The Geoponika recommends a smoke-based method to get bees moving and clear out their hives:

When the first ten days of spring are past, drive them out to their pastures with the smoke of dried cow-dung, then clean and sweep out their hives: the bad smell of the dung disturbs them, but cobwebs are an obstacle to them.

Finally, overcrowding is discouraged for the health of the hive:

If there are many combs in the hives, take away the worst, so that they are not made unhealthy by overcrowding.

Harvesting Honey

The Geoponika recommends harvesting honey three times a year: in early May, again in summer, and finally around October. However, it warns against taking too much. As the text notes, if all the honey is removed, “the bees are angry and stop working.” Beekeepers are advised to leave one-tenth of the honey during the first two harvests and two-thirds before winter.

To avoid being stung while collecting honey, the text suggests a few preventative methods. These include driving the bees off with smoke from cow dung and smearing the skin with the juice of male wild mallow. A more elaborate recipe is also provided:

Take flour of roasted fenugreek, add the decoction of wild mallow with olive oil so that it has the consistency of honey; anoint the face and bare skin with this thickly, take it into the mouth and blow into the beehive three or four times.

The Geoponika even describes what makes for the best kind of honey:

It should be translucent and pale yellow in colour, smooth to the touch, remaining in a long string when pulled, readily raised to a point and slow to sink back, thick when it reluctantly separates; and it should have a good aroma.

Geoponika: Farm Work was translated by Andrew Dalby for Propect Books in 2011. You can buy it on Amazon.com